Focusing on Western Europe, this chapter introduces resources for finding and using European official statistics. It highlights major sources and notes challenges with and confusion about some key resources, and unpacks the developing European data ecosystem, identifying major data archives, products, services, patterns, and trends.

About Europe and the European Union

European official statistics and the European data system are uniquely complex. Europe’s governmental membership and transnational governance institutions overlap, encompassing varied groups of European organizations, European countries, regions, and the “European neighborhood” (countries and regions that border the European Union). Although the European Union (EU) is the largest of these institutions; “Europe” and “the European Union” are not synonymous. Both EU sources and popular sources often muddle this significant distinction, referring to “Europe” when meaning the more limited EU. European institutions distinct from but sometimes confused with the EU include the Council of Europe and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

Ever since the foundation of the three original European Communities in the aftermath of World War II, the EU and its precursors have been advanced intentionally. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the European Economic Community (EEC) became the European Communities, then the European Community, and then in 1992 the European Union, while membership expanded to include most of the countries in continental Europe along with Great Britain and Ireland. Historically dynamic, with policy areas, institutional complexity, and deeper integration developing over time, in breadth of scope and economic and political significance the EU is unique among international institutions. Brexit and other recent incidents demonstrate that the institution is still dynamic and changing. For more details, see the History of the EU.

Most European countries belong to the European Union; exceptions are Great Britain, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and, in Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean region, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey. European Free Trade Association (EFTA) members include Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland. The European Union possesses characteristics of both an international organization and a supranational organization: that is, depending on the policy area, an organization whose members have retained authority in certain areas yet delegated upwards some authority to EU institutions in others. We see these characteristics playing out in the data ecosystem of Europe.

Getting Started/Essential Tools

Starting a search for social science data requires the same tactics used in general reference. First, looking at popular and scholarly literature is key for understanding the scope and major players of a particular subject. The popular literature will help users understand which agencies are involved in a topic; if a patron is researching voting patterns, for instance, articles in major newspapers will mention election data sources. And the scholarly literature will often cite sources of data used in the analyses; a study looking at public opinion about trust in the media in multiple EU countries might cite the European Social Survey. The literature is always a good starting point before looking for data.

Next, there are several concise European guides to understanding and communicating about data and statistics that are useful references for non-specialist librarians. They introduce key topics for communicating with users, and are especially useful for librarians with less background in social sciences than humanities. One set of communication guides is Making Data Meaningful, produced by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) to help the staff of statistical organizations enliven statistics for non-statisticians. These four clear and practical guides cover presenting statistics, writing about statistics, improving statistical literacy, and presenting statistics to the media. All guides are freely accessible and kept up-to-date.

Many libraries already have access to databases that provide key European data. World Bank Open Data data products and OECD iLibrary’s Statistics (both open access), for example, have many publications and data series that include European countries. Subscription sources like Statista, for market data, or Economist Intelligence Unit are also great starting points if your library has access. And general guides to data reference may touch on European data. The Reference Guide to Data Sources (2014) by Julia Bauder, is an excellent introduction to major online international statistics sources that are freely available.

Finally, specialized resources can help those working with data communities in various countries. An essential tool for translating data and research terminology across countries is the European Language Social Science Thesaurus (ELSST), a broad-based, multilingual, multi-featured thesaurus for the social sciences maintained by the Consortium of European Social Science Data Archives (CESSDA) and providing preferred terms, definitions of terms, scope notes, and translations into other languages. For the entry on Absenteeism (Work), for instance, it suggests translations such as Absentismus in Czech and Fravær in Danish. It is available in 14 languages and updated annually.

Historical Statistics

Accessing historical statistics and data is always challenging for researchers in any country. The library is a key starting point for discovering compendia of statistics, such as International Historical Statistics: Europe, 1750–2005 (2007), by B.R. Mitchell, or Statistics Sources (2010–), updated continuously by the Gale Group. Data citations help users track down original sources and the data producers. Such compendia are a great starting point for most research questions as they give users an overview of who is collecting data within a country or at the international level.

In addition to general reference guides to historical statistics, remember to look for guides to national statistics and to data on themes or topics broader in geographic scope than Europe, which may suggest useful sources. While full coverage of national statistics from each of Europe’s 20-plus countries is beyond the scope of this chapter, several examples are introduced in the next section and are reminders of the variance of national data sources.

When searching for historical statistics, it is useful to remember the research principle of going to the source instead of stopping with the first search results. Mass digitization projects, such as HathiTrust and Internet Archive, provide access to early historical statistical publications, such as those mentioned above. Often, however, the same data might be available not only in the original or digitized print, but in a national data repository or other data source. Data in a data repository will likely be in spreadsheets or datasets that can be downloaded and manipulated, making it a more useful format than images of print. The best source, then, might be the data repository created long after the historical data was captured and printed, or a commercial aggregator, depending on your institution’s subscriptions. The same principle applies to vendors such as Statista and Data Planet (subscription resources) that aggregate data sources. In the end, always remember to look at the source of the data!

National Statistical Institutes

For current data, navigating the European system requires understanding the structure of organizations in the region. Unlike the United States, with its federal statistical system dispersed over multiple agencies, European countries have central organizations called National Statistical Institutes (NSIs). Eurostat maintains an extensive List of National Statistical Institutes and other national authorities arranged by country. Because Eurostat statistics are derived from information collected by NSIs or local authorities, national- or subnational-level statistics may need to be sourced directly from the NSI or from a more local source if they have not been brought into harmony on Eurostat or if detail has been lost in the harmonization process.

NSIs are devoted to the creation and dissemination of national-level statistics covering a wide range of issue areas, from agricultural production to macroeconomic figures to demographic data. While European NSI websites offer English-language versions, the English version may translate only partial content and may not provide an exact translation of the full website in the national language. For example, the English version may highlight information thought to be of interest to an English-speaking business or tourist audience. Because academic researchers are unlikely to be the target audience for the English-language selection, they may need to use the national language site, assisted by a thesaurus or translation tools, to hunt for needed statistics. Finally, know that the NSIs have assumed varied roles in digitizing, publishing, and archiving historical statistics. Digitized historical statistics may be curated by the NSI, the national library, or a national data repository; no common pattern can be assumed.

The following information about selected European NSIs is intended to suggest the variety in national infrastructures and inspire searchers to be persistent and ingenious. In general, statistics and data sets from European statistical agencies are available open access.

France: INSEE (Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques; National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies) provides statistics in French and English for the current year and the past decade. The INSEE website explains French official statistics in English as well as French, and lists other French agencies producing official statistics. French historical statistics are available in French from the Bibliothèque numérique de la statistique publique (Digital Library of Official Statistics).

Italy: Istat (Istituto Nazionale de Statistica; National Institute of Statistics) includes databases, datasets, and analytic tools with interfaces in Italian and English. Some earlier statistics may be found in the Istat Historical Archive, established in 2001 and still growing. Since 2007 it has been open to researchers by reservation for onsite use in Rome of select digitized historical documents.

Norway: Statistisk sentralbyrå/Statistics Norway maintains StatBank Norway, a database of detailed tables with time series for a variety of topics. Statistics Norway has digitized all statistical publications from 1828 to 1999; they are available at Historical Statistics. Publications from 2000 to the present can be found in the Publication Archive, which is transitioning to a new content system that is clearly linked from the old archive. Some Norwegian statistics as well as those from Åland, Denmark, the Faroe Islands, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, and Sweden can also be found in the Nordic Statistics Database, a separate project funded since the 1960s by the Nordic Council of Ministers.

Spain: Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE; National Statistics Institute) is the overarching governmental office responsible for statistics; it includes four other government agencies and a separate statistics system and institute for each of Spain’s Autonomous Communities. Idescat, for example, (Estadistica Oficial de Catalunya; Statistical Institute of Catalonia) collects official statistics for Catalonia.

Switzerland: Das Bundesamt für Statistik/L’Office fédéral de la statistique/L’Ufficio federale di statistica/L’Uffizi federal da statistica (Federal Statistical Office). The Swiss statistical system is highly decentralized but meticulously coordinated and documented. This website is easy to navigate in English, with full current and historical content available in French and German and partial content in English, Italian, and Romansch. A Historical Data Catalog “also contains an entire series of publications scanned from historical publications from the previous [i.e., 19th] century.”

European Union Statistics and Data

For Europe as a region, Eurostat, the centralized statistical agency of the European Union (EU), is the major source for statistics and has the most complete coverage for EU members. Structurally, Eurostat is one of the departments, or Directorates General, reporting to the European Commission (the executive branch of the EU). Eurostat does not collect statistics directly but instead compiles statistics collected by EU member states and some other countries, and produces data in multiple areas for EU policy development. The European Statistical System (ESS), a partnership between Eurostat, EU member countries’ national statistical institutes (NSIs), and members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), works with Eurostat and with member states’ statistical agencies to develop comparable statistics at the EU level. European countries that are EU members, and some that are not, report their data to Eurostat through the ESS, which also coordinates with Great Britain and with sources such as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the UN, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank.

As noted earlier, EU statistics and data services are purpose-driven, energized by the post-war project designed to invent and establish a supranational entity binding European countries together in an intentionally “ever closer union” in order to avert war and ensure peace. Eurostat’s analytical processes harmonize categories of national statistics so comparisons can be made between EU member countries and regions, helping facilitate policy developments and fund allocations that contribute to this ever stronger union. A good discussion of the complexity and pitfalls of harmonization can be found in the Cross-cultural Survey Guidelines maintained by the Survey Research Center International Unit at the University of Michigan. Eurostat also works with the ESS to support the work of member countries’ data gathering and processing to conform to Eurostat standards.

The following characteristics thus need to be considered when using data from the European Union:

• Intentionality: the purpose or official audience for the data.
• Dynamic policy scope: the topics are covered for data collection and why certain topics are not included.
• Dynamic institutions: European Central Bank (ECB), European Court of Justice (ECJ).
• Dynamic membership: EU membership at a particular time, as it has expanded (and contracted), and relationships with candidate countries and other non-EU members.

Eurostat’s Statistics Explained: Your guide to European [i.e. EU] statistics offers an excellent introduction to EU statistics and links to the most-visited EU statistics sites. An entry-level portal, it is useful for approaching statistics on particular topics, such as the environment or housing, provides data in a more accessible way, and offers tutorials. Eurostat’s Access to Microdata explains that microdata may be available from Eurostat for research purposes, on application.

In addition to Eurostat, the European Commission supports an official data service portal, Data Europa EU. Launched in 2021 and merging the EU Open Data Portal and the European Data Portal, Data Europa EU aims to provide free-access links to all data produced in the public sector by member states as well as the EU, and to encourage its re-use. The catalog pulls from Open Data Portals and GeoData Portals in most (but not all) EU countries, and has both the benefits and challenges of an open data portal. Records sourced from 50 smaller data catalogs are grouped by major EU policy categories, linking to more than 1.3 million records without being nearly comprehensive. As with most open data portals, including the US’s data.gov, it is in the early stages of development and aggregates a variety of data in many formats, but not comprehensively or uniformly. It is managed by the Publications Office.

In addition to these EU sources, other sources of comparable statistics for groups of European countries include the Nordic Statistics Database, supported by the Nordic Council of Ministers since the 1960s, and CISSTAT CISSTAT/Статкомитет СНГ, the statistics database of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), a regional intergovernmental organization founded in 1991 whose members are countries formerly part of the Soviet Union.

European Censuses

A census is the count of a population of a country, administrative unit, or particular sector (such as agriculture or housing). Familiar examples include the U.S. Decennial Census of Population and Housing, a population count recording some basic demographic characteristics and the housing stock, and the U.S. Economic Census, which measures the business sector and the economy. Census data are official statistics—statistics collected and disseminated by a national or local government authority. Around the world, national census collection methods vary.

As in the US, European countries conduct censuses, and most population counts are undertaken at least every ten years. Some countries, such as France and Denmark, carry out population censuses every year, and France’s rolling census is published every five years. Recent census dates for European countries can be found in the table Census Dates for All Countries, compiled by the UN World Population and Housing Census Program. The censuses of EU members must meet standards determined by EU legislation that mandate the type of data and metadata to be created to facilitate transnational comparisons.

Census questions in any country are impacted by national concerns at the time of creation, meaning that questions vary across years and countries. In addition, some variables available in US Census data will not be available in individual European countries. Race, for example, is recognized as a demographic category in only one European country, the Republic of Ireland. IPUMS International (open access) is a good tool for browsing the census questions for many European countries across multiple years. As all of the source documents are translated into English, it is a helpful tool for users who have language barriers.

Most recent censuses for European countries can be found on CensusHub, created by the ESS to provide a portal where data structured in similar ways could facilitate better comparisons between member countries’ data points. Other census dissemination channels include the Eurostat database and the Geographical Information System of the [European] Commission (GISCO). Eurostat includes some older data (from 1990/91, 2001, and 2011), all available at the national level; data on some internal regions are also available. GISCO maintains a geographic information database and offers visualizations that enliven discussions of regional geospatial variation.

The 2021 Censuses will be released on Census Hub starting in December 2022. National census collection methods vary, but most countries will provide information sourced from administrative data supplemented by surveys. EU members are required to collect certain data to facilitate transnational comparisons and may collect additional data that is not reported out.

Finally, historical census microdata sets are available from IPUMS International. As with all IPUMS data, the datasets are coded and harmonized across time and countries to facilitate comparisons. Because the data are microdata—data about individuals and households—they are not available in aggregate tabular format; users need statistical software to create tables or analyze the data.

European Research Data

Research data is the data collected by researchers for the purpose of furthering specific scholarly agendas. This category is somewhat artificial, as official statistics are often used or combined with other data for scholarly purposes. However, research data has become an accepted term for data created through scholarly and scientific process to support research findings.

Research data can take a range of forms and include all of the objects produced in the process of conducting research. Although a dataset might be the first thing to come to mind, it cannot be understood without its related documentation, such as codebooks, survey instruments, or code. The official statistical institutes gather documentation as well as data, but as most of their data are reported in aggregate form (through tables with percentages and sums), most users do not interface with the documentation unless they are conducting research that requires access to microdata.

Research data are typically not reported out in aggregate form except as part of the scholarly record through journal articles or other publications. Researchers may choose or be required to deposit research data in a data repository. The Registry of Research Data Repositories (not limited to Europe) is a useful finding tool with a compelling visual browse system.

Similar to the official statistics system, social science research data tends to be archived within designated data archives. In Europe, this coordinated system of archives is governed by a European Commission-based European Research Infrastructure Consortium (ERIC). The ERIC legal framework entered into force on August 28, 2009, and facilitates the establishment of legally-recognized entities that support key research endeavors of interest to the EU. There are 14 such entities as of 2021; for example, the main social science surveys in ERIC are SHARE ERIC (Survey of Health, Aging, and Retirement in Europe) and the European Social Survey (ESS). Other examples familiar to librarians are CLARIN ERIC (EU language research infrastructure) and DARIAH ERIC (digital humanities and arts research).

CESSDA, the Consortium of European Social Science Data Archives, established in 1976 and hosted in Bergen, Norway, is of particular interest to social science researchers. The organization became an ERIC in 2017, and most European countries are members or partners. CESSDA has worked to provide uniform tools and support for all members. All member archives, for example, are required to adopt requirements set by the CoreTrustSeal, an international, trustworthy repository certification program. CESSDA has also created the CESSDA Data Catalogue, a union catalog of metadata from the member country data catalogs that enhances the discoverability of European research data and provides over 24,000 results in English alone, with several thousand more in other languages. Data-seekers are directed to the member data archive that holds the data, where data access depends on the various policies of individual national archives. Each CESSDA member has a designated national service provider; Germany’s, for example, is GESIS (Gesellschaft Sozialwissenschaftlicher Infrastruktureinrichtungen; German Infrastructure Institute for the Social Sciences), described below. Some countries, such as Spain, have not designated national service providers. The CESSDA Data Catalogue claims to contain records for all of the data sets in its service providers, which cover 20 countries, but discovery is complicated by incomplete translation of metadata into English. The search interface is only in English.

European National Data Archives

In this section we introduce three CESSDA partners—major national data archives that are service providers, noting some of the data products they maintain and their relationship with other statistical organizations. Each of the three is a designated national repository, CoreTrustSeal certified, and also curates some specialized transnational data. We highlight these three because they are some of the largest organizations in CESSDA and provide access to data that has wide interest. If you are interested in a particular country, be sure to look at that country’s CESSDA partner for more localized data.

UK Data Service, United Kingdom

The UK Data Service (UKDS) is the UK’s national research infrastructure for data curation and access to the largest social science data collection in the UK. Partnered with several key service providers, including its primary partner, the UK Data Archive, UKDS is the main infrastructure supporting data collection, curation, and training in data analysis, and provides access to a wide range of social science data related to both the UK and international organizations. Major holdings include the UK Censuses and international macrodata from organizations such as the International Energy Agency (IEA), IMF, OECD, the World Bank, and more. In addition, it holds survey series representing all aspects of life in the UK and its constituent nations. A few examples include the National Survey for Wales, the National Youth Social Action Survey, begun in 2014 to measure activism levels among 10–20 year-olds, and the General Lifestyle Survey (formerly the General Household Survey), which ran from 1971–2012.

Non-UK academic users have access to data after registering for a username and password. Some data are only available to UK researchers; this is indicated on the “Access” tab in the data catalog. Restricted-use data is only available through the UK Data Service’s SecureLab, which provides a virtual enclave through the UKDS’s Safe Room; access requires a Secure Access User Agreement between a researcher’s organization and the UKDS, and some data are only available to UK researchers.

GESIS, Germany

GESIS (Gesellschaft Sozialwissenschaftlicher Infrastruktureinrichtungen; German Infrastructure Institute for the Social Sciences), which forms the research infrastructure for the Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences, is the largest in Germany. Headquartered in Mannheim and Cologne, Germany, it provides a range of services, including survey methodology and planning, data collection, data curation, and preservation support. The GESIS system has made significant contributions to data curation, access, analysis, and comparability for European as well as German data.

GESIS hosts several major European survey programs, including the following, most critical ones:

• International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) is a cross-national collaboration running annual surveys on social science topics. Founded in 1984 with four members (Australia, Germany, Great Britain, and the US), it has grown to 42 international members.
• Comparative Study of Electoral Systems (CSES) integrates post-election survey data from more than 50 countries around the world.
• The European Values Study (EVS) is a comprehensive, large-scale, cross-national, longitudinal study, started in 1981 and repeating every nine years, now in an increasing number of countries. Publications include the Atlas of European Values: Change and Continuity in Turbulent Times (Halman, Reeskens, Sieben, and Zundert 2022) (open access), Atlas of European Values: Trends and Traditions at the Turn of the Century (Halman, Sieben, Zundert 2012), and the Social Atlas of Europe (Ballas, Dorling, and Hennig 2014) Surveys are conducted by Tilburg University; data and documentation are free from GESIS.
• European Election Studies (EES) maintains data on voting in European Parliament elections, primarily since 1979.

GESIS hosts the European Union’s Eurobarometer public opinion survey results. These surveys on various topics are commissioned by the European Commission together with the relevant EU Directorate(s) General or the European Parliament. Most results are published and available through the Commission’s Eurobarometer portal; a few are subject to clearly defined embargos. GESIS provides the Eurobarometer Data Service.

GESIS researchers produced the indispensable reference guide to European political history and elections, Elections in Europe: a Data Handbook, by Dieter Nohlen and Philip Stöver (2010). A related resource is Elections in Western Europe 1815–1996: Electoral Results by Constituencies, edited by Daniele Caramani (2000).

GESIS products also include essential guides to European demography and social statistics by Franz Rothenbacher: Statistical Sources for Social Research on Western Europe, 1945–1995: A guide to social statistics (1998), The European Population, 1850–1945 (2002), The European Population since 1945 (2005), and The Central and East European Population Since 1850 (2013).

Norwegian Centre for Research Data (NSD), Norway

Norway’s progressive leadership in digitization, data archiving, and open science are noteworthy. In 2022, the Norsk Senter for Forskningsdata/Norwegian Centre for Research Data (NSD), which has archived data on behalf of the Arkivverket (National Archives of Norway) since 2014, merged with two other organizations to form the Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research (Sikt). Although not a member of the EU, Norway is the primary host for CESSDA.

NSD is a core member and the host of the European Social Survey (ESS), curating and archiving ESS data. Cross-national and cross-cultural in scope, ESS has gathered data on attitudes, beliefs and behaviors in 40 countries at intervals since 2002. Researchers may request access to data by registering.

Other Significant Sources of European Statistics and Data

Several important sources that fall outside the frameworks described above are noted in this final section.

Cross-National Time-Series Data Archive (CNTS), a longitudinal national data series provides ranges of annual data from 1815 to the present for over 200 countries with 196 variables and features domestic conflict event data. Tags added in 2021 to the Anti-Government Demonstrations variable differentiate events related to Black Lives Matter, COVID-19, and gender-based violence. Various access options.

ILOSTAT from the International Labor Organization (ILO) is the leading source of data on labor. There are country profiles and a Catalogue of ILOSTAT Sources. Other European labor data sources include EurWORK (European Observatory of Working Life), a project of the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, and a “Labour” tab on OECD Statistics.

Migration Data Portal aims to provide timely, comprehensive access to data and research documentation on transnational and global migration. A project of the International Organization of Migration (IOM), the Data Dashboard launched in 2021 allows geographic and national comparisons. See also the Migration Data Hub.

SHARE (Survey of Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe) is a multidisciplinary, cross-national panel database of microdata on health, socio-economic status, and social and family networks from 28 European countries (and Israel) from 2004. Data are harmonized with the US National Institute on Aging and with national sources. SHARE’s Data Access for research is free, by prior registration.

UN Data links to 32 United Nations databases and various frequently-consulted tables.

The UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) Statistical Database supports environmental and sustainable development policy and initiatives across the countries of Europe, with data in six areas: economics, forestry, gender, transportation, the Millennium Development Goals, and international migration.

World Bank Data Catalog is a project designed to make World Bank data easy to find, download, use, and share.

Conclusion

If you are a librarian who assists or partners with researchers, teaches European studies research skills, or creates or builds collections, you are accustomed to navigating complex research sites, working with unfamiliar languages, and untangling complex inquiries. Your existing skills are an excellent foundation for work with European official statistics and research data and for partnership with data specialists who lack foundation in European studies.

Much European data is available to North American users. Although some archives limit access to researchers or citizens, or require permission, many more are open on application. Some data has been harmonized to be compatible with US survey data. Common translation tools and the European Language Social Science Thesaurus (ELSST) are essential companions. The European data landscape is dynamic; we hope that this chapter is a useful overview and will induce confidence in exploring that landscape in greater depth and detail.

References and Recommended Readings

Ballas, Dimitris, Daniel Dorling, and Benjamin Hennig. 2014. The Social Atlas of Europe. Bristol, UK: Policy Press.

Bauder, Julia. 2014. The Reference Guide to Data Sources. Chicago: ALA Editions, an imprint of the American Library Association.

Caramani, Daniele. 2000. Elections in Western Europe since 1815: Electoral Results by Constituencies. London: Macmillan Reference.

Gale. 2010-. Statistics Sources. Farmington, Michigan: Gale Cengage Learning.

Halman, Loek, Tim Reeskens, Inge Sieben, and Marga van Zundert, eds. 2022. Atlas of European Values: Change and Continuity in Turbulent Times. [Tilburg, Netherlands]: Open Press TiU, Tilburg University. Accessed June 30, 2023. https://doi.org/10.26116/6p8v-tt12.

Halman, Loek, Inge Josephina Petra Sieben, and Marga van Zundert. 2012. Atlas of European Values: Trends and Traditions at the Turn of the Century. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill.

Mitchell, B. R. 2007. International Historical Statistics, Europe: 1750–2005. 6th ed. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.

Nohlen, Dieter, and Philip Stöver. 2010. Elections in Europe: a Data Handbook. 1. Ed. Baden-Baden, Germany: Nomos.

Rothenbacher, Franz. 1998. Statistical Sources for Social Research on Western Europe 1945–1995: a Guide to Social Statistics. Opladen: Leske + Budrich.

Rothenbacher, Franz. 2002. The European Population, 1850–1945. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.

Rothenbacher, Franz. 2005. The European Population since 1945. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.

Rothenbacher, Franz. 2013. The Central and East European Population since 1850. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.