Historical Background in The Netherlands

The literary output produced by ethnic minority writers in the Netherlands is known for its diversity, with authors of varied heritage, individual experiences, and time of arrival in the Netherlands. Works therefore follow different patterns of publication, language, and themes (Minnaard 2018, 355). According to several researchers, including Minnaard and T’Sjoen, writing by marginalized groups in the Netherlands generally falls into three categories: postcolonial literature and literature of the Dutch East Indies and Suriname; migration literature, by authors who migrated to the Netherlands due to political and economic circumstances during the 1960s; and works by political refugees who sought asylum during the 1980s and 1990s (Minnaard 2018, 358; T’Sjoen 2013, 267).

Works by ethnic-minority writers gained popularity in the Netherlands in the 1990s, when migration became a topic of interest in literary and academic fields. There is still extensive discussion on how to categorize these authors and their works (Behschnitt, de Mul and Minnaard 2013; Nijborg and Laroui 2013; T’sjoen 2013). Literary works by postcolonial writers, refugees, and other minority authors were initially placed into the same category as migration literature, or referred to as allochtoon writing, the official term for a Dutch citizen with a migrant background (see T’Sjoen 2013; Minnaard 2018). The word allochtoon, however, is no longer officially used by the government. At the start of the 21^st century, emphasis shifted from the ethnic background of the author to the quality of the literary work. And while first-generation ethnic minority authors focused on identity, cultural differences, and origins, these themes shifted with the arrival of the second and third generations of ethnic-minority writers. Hafid Bouazza, one of the first Moroccan authors to write literary works in Dutch, was very outspoken about how his writing was not to be categorized in terms of his Moroccan background.

In Een beer in bontjas, he writes:

If I were to believe most critics then I am a Moroccan writer. But I do not believe most critics. According to other, well-disposed people, I am a Moroccan-Dutch author. But that label sounds uncomfortable. It hobbles around in a slipper and a clog— and that makes walking bloody tricky. Then there are the careful people (they are a minority) for whom I have coined the title D.A.M.D.D.N. [Dutch Author of Moroccan Descent with Dutch Nationality]. That is the only politically correct designation, but it will not make you very popular. It sounds like a rare disease. (Bouazza 2004, 14-15)

Postcolonial Migrants

The first group of postcolonial migrants to the Netherlands arrived after Indonesia declared independence on August 17, 1945. Many were of Indonesian, Dutch, and Moluccan descent. The second wave, arriving during the 1970s, was associated with the independence of Suriname, and consisted of people from vastly different groups, such as Hindi-Surinamese, Creole-Surinamese, Javanese-Surinamese, Afro-Surinamese, Aukan-Surinamese, and Saramaccan-Surinamese.

Labor Migrants or Guestworkers (Gastarbeiders)

During the labor shortages of the 1960s, the Dutch government, like many others in Europe, started recruiting unskilled foreign workers mostly from Morocco and Turkey. These workers were initially called labor migrants or guest workers (gastarbeiders). Upon arrival and thereafter, the situation for these workers was precarious, and starkly different from that encountered by the first postcolonial group of immigrants. The term “guestworker” suggested that the migrants were only supposed to stay temporarily, and differences in language, religion, and appearance contributed to discriminatory policies, attitudes, and perceptions.

Many labor migrants decided to stay in the Netherlands with their families after the ban on foreign recruitment in 1973. Although there were guest workers from many countries, including Turkey, Moroccan authors continued to create the bulk of literary output. Nijborg and Laroui (2013) attribute this literary success to the influence of Amsterdam’s media, publishers, and prominent literary institutions. Two other reasons are Morocco’s tradition of telling stories and acquisition of the Dutch language.

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

The third group of migrants to the Netherlands consists of refugees and asylum seekers who arrived during the 1980s and 1990s, fleeing their countries of origin for political, humanitarian, or economic reasons. In 2022, most asylum seekers came from Syria (5,566 people), followed by Eritrea (1,504), Turkey (1,265), Algeria (1,062), and Yemen (861) (“Cijfers, aantal vluchtelingen wereldwijd,” n.d.).

Historical background in Belgium

This chapter discusses Flemish rather than Belgian Francophone. Sarah de Mul has written extensively about the lack or delayed arrival of Flemish ethnic minority writing (Boehmer and de Mul 2012; Behschnitt, de Mul and Minnaard 2013), proposing that one explanation is that the first generation of Maghrebi immigrants from the 1970s was supposed to stay only as temporary guests. A failed implementation of multicultural policies and a climate of xenophobia and racism also contributed to the exclusion of ethnic minorities from the literary and cultural scene. In addition, Moroccan-Belgian authors have refused to conform to expectations in the Flemish literary arena of serving as spokespersons for their ethnocultural communities. Brems (2016) suggests that, in contrast to the Netherlands, Flemish Belgium lacks a tradition of colonial or postcolonial literature and that most ethnic minority literary works are in French. In addition, fewer cultural migrant organizations focus on literature, thus limiting the promotion of ethnic minority authors.

Core Collection

What follows is a list of authors and their literary output; it is neither exhaustive nor complete. In the case of Suriname, while most titles are more than 20 years old, they are all critical to the Dutch canon and our colonial and postcolonial understanding. The authors in this list are referred to as Moroccan-Dutch, Turkish-Dutch, Moroccan-Flemish, and Turkish-Flemish, but it is understood that these artificial labels hold little meaning, and most of these authors simply consider themselves Dutch or Belgian and would reject these artificial labels.

Suriname

Albert Helman (1903-1996, pseudonym of Lodewijk Lichtveld)

• Helman, Albert. 1931. De stille plantage [The silent plantation]. Rotterdam: Nijgh & Van Ditmar.

Anton de Kom (1898-1945)

• Kom, Anton de. 1934. Wij Slaven van Suriname [We slaves of Suriname]. Amsterdam: Contact.

Astrid Roemer (1947-)

• Roemer, Astrid. 1973. Neem mij terug Suriname [Take me back Suriname]. Paramaribo: Algemeen bureau voor de statistiek.

Anil Ramdas (1958-2012)

• Ramdas, Anil. 2011. Badal: Roman [Badal]. Amsterdam: De Bezige Bij.

Bea Vianen (1935-2019)

• Vianen, Bea. 1969. Sarnami, hai [Surinam, I am]. Amsterdam: Querido.
• ———. 1973. Het paradijs van Oranje [The paradise of Orange]. Amsterdam: Querido.

Clark Accord (1961-2011)

• Accord, Clark. 1999. De koningin van Paramaribo: Kroniek van Maxi Linder [The Queen of Paramaribo: the chronicle of Maxi Linder]. Amsterdam: Vassallucci.

Cynthia McLeod (1936-)

• McLeod, Cynthia. 1987. Hoe duur was de suiker? [The cost of sugar]. Paramaribo: Vaco.

Edgar Cairo (1948-2000)

• Cairo, Edgar. 1969. Kopzorg: Het verhaal van vader en zoon [Mind worry: a Surinamese story of father and son]. Houten: Agathon.
• ———. 1976. Kollektieve schuld, of wel Famir’man-sani [Collective guilt, or Famir’man-sani]. Baarn: Het Wereldvenster.

Karin Amatmoekrim (1976-)

• Amatmoekrim, Karin. 2009. Titus [Titus]. Amsterdam: Prometheus.

Raoul de Jong (1984-)

• Jong, Raoul de. 2020. Jaguarman: Mijn vader, zijn vader en andere Surinaamse helden [Jaguarman my father, his father and other heroes of Surinam]. Amsterdam: De Bezige Bij.

Rudie van Lier (1914-1987)

• Lier, Rudolf van. 1971. Samenleving in een grensgebied: Een sociaal-historische studie van Suriname [Frontier society: a social analysis of the history of Suriname]. ‘s-Gravenhage: Nijhoff.

Moroccan Dutch

Hafid Bouazza (1970-2021)

• Bouazza, Hafid. 1996. De voeten van Abdullah [Abdullah’s feet]. Amsterdam: Arena.
• ———. 2004. Een beer in bontjas: Autobiografische beschouwingen [A bear in a fur coat: autobiographical considerations]. Amsterdam: Prometheus.

Mustafa Stitou (1974-)

• Stitou, Mustafa. 2003. Varkensroze ansichten: Gedichten [Pink pig picture postcards: poems].

Amsterdam : De Bezige Bij.

• ———. 2013. Tempel: Gedichten [Temple: poems]. Amsterdam: De Bezige Bij.

Khalid Boudou (1974-)

• Boudou, Khalid. 2001. Het schnitzelparadijs [Schnitzel paradise]. Amsterdam: Vassallucci.

Abdelkader Benali (1975-)

• Benali, Abdelkader. 1996. Bruiloft aan zee: Roman [Wedding by the sea]. Amsterdam: Vassallucci.
• ———. 2020. Reizigers van een nieuwe tijd: Jan Janszoon, een Nederlandse piraat in Marokkaanse dienst [Travelers of a new era: Jan Janszoon, a Dutch pirate in Moroccan service]. Amsterdam: De Arbeiderspers.

Said El Haji (1976-)

• Haji, Said El. 2000. De dagen van Sjaitan [The days of Sjaitan]. Amsterdam: Vassallucci.

Khalid Mourigh (1981-)

• Mourigh, Khalid. 2021. De gast uit het Rifgebergte: Het leven van een Marokkaanse arbeider [The guest from the Rif mountains]. Amsterdam: Cossee.

Mano Bouzamour (1991-)

• Bouzamour, Mano. 2013. De belofte van Pisa [The promise of Pisa]. Amsterdam: Prometheus.
• ———. 2018. Bestsellerboy [Bestseller boy]. Amsterdam: Prometheus.

Turkish Dutch

Halil Gür (1951-)

• Gür, Halil. 1984. Gekke Mustafa en andere verhalen [Crazy Mustafa and other stories]. Breda: De Geus.

Erdal Balci (1969-)

• Balci, Erdal. 2015. Simonehh en mijn tweelingbroer [Simonehh and my twin brother]. Amsterdam: Van Gennep.

Murat Isik (1977-)

• Isik, Murat. 2012. Verloren grond [Lost land]. Amsterdam: Anthos.
• ———. 2017. Wees onzichtbaar [Be invisible]. Amsterdam: Ambo|Anthos.

Lale Gül (1997-)

• Gül, Lale. 2021. Ik ga leven [I am going to live]. Amsterdam: Prometheus.

Important other

Kader Abdolah (1954-) (Iran)

• Abdolah, Kader. 2005. Het huis van de moskee [The House of the Mosque]. Breda: De Geus.

Moroccan Flemish

Rachida Lamrabet (1970-)

• Lamrabet, Rachida . 2007. Vrouwland [Woman country]. Antwerpen: Manteau.

Fikry El Azzouzi (1978-)

• Azzouzi, Fikry El. 2010. Het schapenfeest [The sheep festival]. Amsterdam: Van Gennep.

Ish Ait Hamou (1987-)

• Ait Hamou, Ish. 2019. Al het moois dat we delen [The beauty we share]. Antwerpen: Angèle.

Turkish Flemish

Mustafa Kör (1976-)

• Kör Mustafa. 2007. De lammeren: Roman [The lambs]. Amsterdam: Van Gennep.
• ———. 2016. Ben jij liefde: Gedichten [Are you love: poems]. Antwerpen: Uitgeverij Vrijdag.

Important other

Chika Unigwe (1974-) (Nigeria)

• Unigwe, Chika. 2007. Fata Morgana: Roman [On Black sisters street]. Amsterdam: Meulenhoff.

Community Resources

The Black Archives: Documents the history of black emancipation movements and individuals in the Netherlands. Founded in 2015 by Jessica de Abreu, Mitchell Esajas, Miguel Heilbron, and Thiemo Heilbron.

The Black Archives Expositie: “Surinamers in Nederland: 100 jaar Emancipatie en Strijd”: Information related to the exhibition “Surinamese in the Netherlands: 100 years of Emancipation and Struggle.”

Anton de Kom (Canon van Nederland): Encyclopedia entry on Anton de Kom.

E. du Perronprijs: An annual prize established in 1986 to reward those who promote mutual understanding and good relations between diverse populations living in the Netherlands.

El Hizjra. A cultural organization for Arab-speaking immigrants in the Netherlands. Founded in 1987; promotes a tolerant society with equality when it comes to gender, culture, and religion.

El Hizjra Literatuurprijs: El Hizjra Literature Prize; encourages and supports upcoming literary talent for authors with an Arabic background.

Kwakoe Literatuurprijs (Wikipedia.nl). Kwakoe Literature Prize; given between 1999 and 2006 to encourage upcoming literary talent from Suriname.

Literatuur Vlaanderen (Flanders Literature) and Nederlands Letterenfonds (Dutch Foundation for Literature): Charged with supporting writers and translators and promoting Flemish and Dutch literature (respectively) abroad. Grants awarded to promote diversity in literature.

Literatuurmuseum (Museum of Literature): Holds the literary memories of the Netherlands; archive includes books by nearly every Dutch author and illustrator.

Passa Porta: International house of literature in Brussels; meeting place for authors and translators from Belgium and abroad.

Recommended Reading

Aynan, Asis. 2020. Eén erwt maakt nog geen snert: Het Rifgebergte, de dubbele nationaliteit en andere misverstanden [One pea doesn’t make pea soup: the Rif, dual nationality and other misunderstandings]. Amsterdam: G.A. Van Oorschot B.V.

Baay, Reggie. 2015. Daar werd wat gruwelijks verricht: Slavernij in Nederlands-Indië [Something horrific happened there: slavery in the Dutch Indies]. Amsterdam: Atheneaeum – Polak & van Gennep.

Botman, Maayke, Nancy Jouwe, and Gloria. Wekker. 2001. Caleidoscopische visies: De zwarte, migranten en vluchtelingen-vrouwenbeweging in Nederland [Kaleidoscopic visions: The black, migrant and refugee women’s movement in the Netherlands]. Amsterdam: Koninklijk instituut voor de tropen.

Fatah-Black, Karwan. 2018. Eigendomsstrijd. De geschiedenis van slavernij en emancipatie in Suriname [Property dispute. The history of slavery and emancipation in Surinam]. Amsterdam: Ambo|Anthos.

Kom, Anton de. 1934. Wij Slaven van Suriname [We Slaves of Suriname]. Amsterdam: Contact.

Lucassen, Jan, Leo Lucassen, and Merve Tosun. 2021. Migratie als DNA van Amsterdam, 1950-2021 [Migration as the DNA of Amsterdam, 1950-2021]. Amsterdam: Atlas Contact.

Naegels, Tom. 2021. Nieuw België: Een migratiegeschiedenis 1944-1978 [New Belgium: A migration history 1944-1978]. Tielt: Lannoo.

Obdeijn, Herman, Paolo de Mas, and Nadia Bouras. 2021. Geschiedenis van Marokko [History of Morocco]. Amsterdam: Bulaaq.

Prandoni, Marco. 2022. Essays on Contemporary Dutch Literature: Migration – Identity Negotiation — Cultural Memory. Bern: Peter Lang.

Wekker, Gloria. 2016. Witte onschuld: Paradoxen van kolonialisme en ras [White innocence: paradoxes of colonialism and race]. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

References

Behschnitt, Wolfgang, Sarah de Mul, and Liesbeth Minnaard. 2013. Literature, language, and multiculturalism in Scandinavia and the Low Countries. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Boehmer, Elleke, and Sarah de Mul. 2012. The postcolonial Low Countries: literature, colonialism, and multiculturalism. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Bouazza, Hafid. 2004. Een beer in bontjas: Autobiographische beschouwingen. Amsterdam: Prometheus.

Brems, Hugo. 2016. Altijd weer vogels die nesten bouwen. Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse literatuur 1945-2005. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Bert Bakker.

“Cijfers, aantal vluchtelingen wereldwijd.” n.d. UNHCR de VN-Vluchtelingen Organisatie. Accessed March 2022. https://www.unhcr.org/nl/wie-we-zijn/cijfers/.

Krus, Patricia. 2009. “The Ethics of Postcolonial Healing in Astrid Roemer’s Trilogy of Suriname.” In Perspectives on the “Other America,” edited by Michael Niblett and Kerstin Oloff, 175-195. Leiden: Brill.

Minnaard, Liesbeth. 2008. “Hafid Bouazza: ‘Long Live Uprooting! Long Live the Imagination!” In New Germans, New Dutch: Literary Interventions, 107-42. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

———. 2018. “Oscillating between Margin and Centre: Dutch Literature of Migration.” In Immigrant and Ethnic Minority Writers since 1945: Fourteen National Contexts in Europe and Beyond, edited by Wiebke Sievers and Sandra Vlasta, 355-387. Leiden: Brill Rodopi.

Nijborg, Marjan, and Fouad Laroui. 2013. “The emergence of a Dutch-Moroccan literature: an institutional and linguistic explanation.” In Literature, Language, and Multiculturalism in Scandinavia and the Low Countries, 225-242. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Nederlands Letterenfonds. n.d. “Anton de Kom: We slaves of Suriname.” Accessed February 15, 2022. http://www.letterenfonds.nl/en/book/1146/we-slaves-of-suriname.

Rutgers, Wim, and Scott Rollins. 1998. “Caribbean Literature from Suriname, The Netherlands Antilles, Aruba, and The Netherlands: A Special Issue.” Callaloo, 21, no. 3 (Summer): 542-555.

Sievers, Wiebke, and Sandra Vlasta. 2018. Immigrant and ethnic-minority writers since 1945: Fourteen national contexts in Europe and beyond. Leiden: Brill-Rodopi.

T’sjoen, Yves. 2013. “About the (Non-)Existence of “Migrant Literature” in the Netherlands: Or, why Mustafa Stitou is a Dutch Author.” In Literature, Language, and Multiculturalism in Scandinavia and the Low Countries, 263-281. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.

Van Kempen, Michiel. 1995. Spiegel van de Surinaamse poëzie. Amsterdam: Meulenhoff.

———. 2003. Een geschiedenis van de Surinaamse literatuur. Breda: de Geus.