Introduction

Open Educational Resources (OER) and Open Access (OA) offer important opportunities for digital learning. Many European institutions of higher education have OA policies and repositories, as do many major research organizations. Data from OpenDOAR Statistics list the European countries with the most OER and OA: Germany (303), the United Kingdom (268), Spain (181), France (160), and Italy (144) (OpenDOAR Statistics, n.d.). The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) emphasizes the important potential of using OER and OA: “Now is the time for countries to build on the lessons of the pandemic to reconfigure the people, spaces, time and technology to devise more effective and efficient educational environments” (OECD Education and Skills Today 2021).

This chapter begins by describing OER and examining recent surveys from SPARC Europe. It then offers examples from selected European countries (Austria, France, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands), showing how they introduced OER in a national context.

Open Access versus Open Educational Resources

OA refers to removing barriers to access, such as paywalls. It is designed to make research articles and other scholarly material freely available to the user, and regulates barriers on use and reuse through OA licenses. Similarly, OER are defined as “learning, teaching and research materials in any format and medium that reside in the public domain or are under copyright that have been released under an open license” (UNESCO 2017).

The COVID-19 pandemic provided an opportunity to introduce educators to OER and advocate for their use. OER can be in any medium: paper-based, video, audio, and/or multimedia. While they are not necessarily the same as e-Learning, they can be part of e-learning platforms (Butcher, Kanwar and Uvalić-Trumbić 2015, 5–8). The literature on “Open Education” refers to the broader effort to remove unnecessary barriers to access, and OER are tools for open education; this movement has larger implications for the entire system of education. OER are typically licensed under a Creative Commons License.

Creative Commons Licenses

Creative Commons licenses allow copyright creators who want to support education or knowledge transfer the ability to voluntarily grant some usage rights to the public, but reserve other rights. Fox Valley Technical College has created a helpful guide on OER Background: Creative Commons (CC) – Licensing and OER, which explains the role of licensing in OER. Additional information can be found on the Creative Commons’ webpage About CC Licenses.

Organizations using OER are encouraged to release material that fits the “5 Rs” criteria (Wiley 2014):

1. Retain: the right to own a copy of content/material and to duplicate the material as many times as needed
2. Reuse: the right to use the content/material in its current form in classrooms and/or other educational settings
3. Revise: the right to adapt, modify, and change the content of the material itself
4. Remix: the right to use original content and adapted content, combining them to create new products
5. Redistribute: the right to make copies of any new remixed product and to share it with others.

Guidelines for Creating OER – Toolbox

Two Swiss institutions have created resources for developing OERs. Pädagogische Hochschule (PH Bern; Bern University of Teacher Education) created the OER-Toolbox, which includes checklists to help analyze OER by categories, including content, copyright (legal framework), and technical standards. In particular, one list helps users determine whether available OER conform to and correspond with Switzerland’s educational standards, and a second is for teachers who want to create new OER. Both are helpful in overcoming common concerns about OER use, and help insulate contributors from any accidental wrongdoing while using and producing OER (PH Bern n.d.). Both this toolbox and the Open Educational Resources checklist, by the Zürcher Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften (ZHAW; Zurich University of Applied Sciences), however, are published only in German, making their use difficult for non-German speakers.

These checklists provide reminders of issues that should be considered when creating or using OER:

• Is the material as barrier-free as possible? Is it well-written (simple language)?
• Is the file format uncomplicated to use and change under the 5 Rs (retain, reuse, revise, remix, and redistribute)?
• Are the sources in the material transparent, verifiable, and traceable?
• Does the layout or design support learning, and is it contemporary?
• What does the copyright symbol mean? Where can I find openly licensed material?
• Can I mix and match materials with CC licenses?
• How do I choose the right license?
• Why are open licenses relevant when everything is freely accessible on the Internet?

Issues related to regional copyright, personal rights, data protection, and university law must also be considered when using OER (Krüger and Nesme 2021, 33–38). The Bern University of Teacher Education and ZHAW have created these checklists to help content creators. In both resources above, legal issues loom large because of Swiss copyright laws. Platforms must differentiate between regions, university types, and institution-specific issues. The mission statement of ZHAW’s OER policy (ZHWA 2020, 1) mentions OER as part of a “Kultur des Teilens” (culture of sharing). Essential key areas of research and teaching at ZHAW include digital transformation, internationalization, practical application, and sustainability, all four of which are significant in achieving ZHAW’s desired goals, which focus on Open Science, Open Education, and the Culture of Sharing. The OER policy provides greater legal certainty and has helped create a new organizational unit in the library, “ZHAW digital” (Krüger and Nesme 2021, 33), which advises faculty and students about publishing and licensing of OER and answers questions about searching, finding, or processing OER.

The European Union Initiative for OER

Within its work on “Shaping Europe’s Digital Future,” the European Commission (EC) recognized that “[h]armonised standards promote cultural diversity and bring better access for consumers and business to digital content and services across Europe” (European Commission 2023). In fact, the EC has opened up a wider discussion on what they describe as “the digital transition” (European Commission 2023). As part of the long-term European Union (EU) budget for the coming years, the EC will provide €7.5 billion toward the digital transformation of Europe’s society and economy. The importance of this effort has only increased because of the recent public health crisis: “the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted not only how much we rely on our technology to be available to us, but also how important it is for Europe not to be dependent on systems and solutions coming from other regions of the world” (European Commission, n.d). The EU has recognized that European countries must invest more in the future of education, economic development, and technology in order to catch up with other countries. European countries need to show the world that they are fit for the future and can meet the future needs of the next generation.

The Current European Situation

In its strategic plan, the European Network of Open Education Librarians (ENOEL) emphasizes that “librarians are in a unique position to advance Open Education by bringing experience in both publishing and facilitating access to knowledge to both creators and consumers” (ENOEL, n.d., 4). The plan focuses on raising awareness, advocating, promoting, and facilitating access to OER and providing guidance to build up the network. Despite different levels of knowledge and practice in relation to their national education systems and libraries, network members learn from and support one another, assisting in professional development (ENOEL, n.d., 4–6). In the long run, members will have a proactive role in enhancing OER activities and initiatives.

According to a 2020 survey, “Open Education in European Libraries of Higher Education” (Proudman et al. 2020), OER are still not widely used in Europe. (This online survey was distributed and utilized by ENOEL networks, e.g., the Information Literacy Group (INFOLIT), the Association des directeurs et personnels de direction des bibliothèques universitaires et de la documentation (ADBU; French Association of Academic Libraries and Documentation) and the Red de Bibliotecas Universitarias Españolas (REBIUN; Spanish Network of Universities Libraries). The survey addressed seven major areas: funding, organization, policies, library engagement and leadership, advocacy, services, related skill sets, and related challenges and benefits. While a total of 146 libraries from 29 EU countries took part, there are more than 5,900 academic libraries (including national libraries) in Europe (EBLIDA 2017, 6). The SPARC authors pointed out that “this number [146] is somewhat low, however, since this survey is the first of its kind, it is important to begin such an investigation” (Proudman, Santos-Hermosa, and Smith 2020, 15). Survey results show that,

On average, across institutions, 61% of funding for educational resources was provided by the organisation, 27% came from students, and 12% came from other sources showing a mixed model, which also reflects the different educational systems in place and how they are funded across Europe. (Proudman, Santos-Hermosa, and Smith 2020, 10)

Most libraries collaborate on a regular basis with academic departments, information technology departments, faculty members, e-learning and distance education programs, and teaching and learning centers, and most had an advising role or provided other support by helping with copyright and licensing, OER co-creation, and knowledge exchange (Proudman et al. 2020, 12–24).

Challenges to creating OER for K–12 educational use

The 5 Rs criteria (described above) offer important ideals, but these are not always easy to meet. In Germany, for example, the federal government must approve teaching material before it can be offered to schools by the Bundesland (similar to a state in the US or province in Canada), effectively throttling the movement for creating OER for K–12 levels. Most course materials in Germany are produced by commercial publishers, who have longstanding ties to educational institutions and many employees able to focus exclusively on creating teaching material for schools. And teaching material created by a publisher is, of course, protected by copyright. To show the complexity of copyright situations in the national education contexts, Teresa Nobre (2017) published an overview of “Copyright and Education in Europe: 15 everyday cases in 15 countries.” She observes that not all types of work are treated equally in the context of education, and that every country has restrictions and exemptions. Her findings indicate that:

a significant number of countries only allow educational uses if they are made by schools or other formal education establishments. These are Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, and the United Kingdom. In these countries, museums, libraries, and other providers of non-commercial education must therefore ask for permission before making certain uses of protected materials in their educational programmes. (Nobre 2017, 6)

She concludes that unless the EC broadens copyright regulations to include exceptions for educational use, copyright will continue to be an obstacle to the promotion and easy use of OER.

Overcoming Obstacles to finding OER

Because OER are located in repositories, it is not easy to find them through a simple internet search. The best approach is to search in repository portals know to host OER projects.

The OER World Map (archived at https://zenodo.org/record/6922065) was an important online tool providing information about where OERs were available and demonstrating how far European countries had come in using and promoting OER. The map interface was available in three languages-English, German, and Portuguese, and users could choose from a variety of filters. For example, one could use the “country” filter to select only the European countries, which resulted in a list of 2,354 OERs. In 2018, the OER World Map received an Open Education Award for Excellence. The map was, however, removed from the North-Rhine Westphalian Library Service (hbz) on April 29, 2022 (OER World Map 2022). The host has uploaded the metadata records for the site to the Open Science Platform “Zenodo” (OER World Map Community 2022), making it possible for any library or library association (e.g., IFLA, SPARC Europe, or ENOEL) to host the map.

MOOCs in Europe

Massive Open Online Courses, or MOOCs, combine traditional forms of knowledge transfer (e.g., videos, reading material, and problem-solving exercises) with discussion forums and quizzes. Teachers and learners can communicate with each other, potentially creating an interactive and engaging process of learning. World-renowned universities such as Harvard, Stanford, and the University of California, Berkeley have created content for these courses. MOOCs use a modern online course format and are accessible without restrictions to many users at the same time (“open” and “massive”). On one of the biggest platforms, edX, users can find some of the larger European universities, including Delft University of Technology, RWTH Aachen University, ETH Zürich, and Technische Universität München. Most MOOCs are in English, which raises questions about accessibility in countries where English is not the national language. Barnes confirms some of these challenges in “MOOCs: The Challenges for Academic Librarians” (Barnes 2013).

Although edX is an American MOOC platform, some European countries actively employ it. In the Netherlands, for example, enough courses are taught in English to make the platform useful. In fact, the Dutch government has been a pioneer in the promotion of Open Access and Open Science, and has shown strong interest in promoting OER more broadly. In the new position paper, “Dutch Digitalisation Strategy (DDS),” the Dutch government describes how different sectors of life are impacted by digitization and how the government plans to adapt. As an example, the report notes that “in 2020, the government invested approximately €24 million in order to provide 75,000 devices to students, so that they could fully participate in online education” (Nederland Digitaal 2021, 23).

The Netherlands is also home to SURF, a cooperative association of Dutch educational and research institutions that includes research universities, universities of applied science, senior secondary vocational education institutions, and university medical centers. SURF’s purpose is to ensure that education and research communities have access to excellent network infrastructure, including Information, Communication, Technology (ICT ) facilities (SURF n.d). SURF publishes position and information papers on various subjects, including digital learning resources, digital infrastructure, and free access to education material. Its “Values Guide” is designed to support those engaged in dialogue about digitization in the education sector and about related technological developments. Formerly available only in Dutch, it has been translated into English as Value Compass for Digital Transformation of Education and focuses on three factors: humanity, autonomy, and legal certainty that should impact the decision-making process (Kennisnet and SURF [2022?]).

EMMA, the European Multiple MOOC Aggregator, is a European platform that provides content in multiple languages, including as Catalan, English, Estonian, French, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish, and also includes an automated translation module. This 30-month pilot project from the EU fosters OERs, offers some restricted content to provide a cross-cultural and multilingual learning approach, and aims to help preserve Europe’s rich cultural, educational, and linguistic heritage. EMMA works closely with specialists from various fields who support the platform on pedagogical, technical, and multicultural matters. Each content provider of the content decides which licenses to use.

Country-Specific Offerings

There are several OER offerings of note in European countries that have been most active in this regard, including Italy, France and the Low Countries, and the German-speaking countries.

Italy

EduOpen is a project of the Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca (Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research). Many well-known multi-universities from Italy are listed as creators for online courses, including the University of Pavia, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, and the University of Modena. Fabio Nascimbeni describes the EduOpen experience as including “courses, either as individual learning experiences or organized in learning pathways, that include a group of courses connected to each other” (Nascimbeni 2020, 54). All participants can receive a “participation certificate and an open badge;” they also have the option to take a face-to-face examination for a paid certificate with credits. Most courses are in English and Italian. It is not clear how helpful the search process is for non-Italian speakers; users may get a better result by using Italian terminology. When users change the interface into English, the course description is provided in English; most courses, however, will be in Italian.

Scuola valore is a publicly funded online repository that promotes activities and learning resources for primary and secondary school teachers. It provides 800 resources in various subjects, which can be adapted to the different levels of the Italian school system, and content is free and downloadable without the need to register. It is not fully an OER, however, because the platform’s content is protected by Italian copyright. Users are not allowed to remix resources.

TRIO is a web-based learning system developed by Regione Toscana and used primarily by Italian primary and secondary schools. It includes about 1,800 courses targeting vocational training and professional development. As its users, TRIO lists students, employed and unemployed persons, and citizens and non-citizens. All courses have been adapted to the latest EU regulations for online learning. Users need digital identity in the form of an electronic identity card or national service card (health card) from Italy. For non-Italian speaking users, it is not clear how the content can be accessed to create an account.

In “Open Education Resources in Italy,” Fabio Nascimbeni provides more examples of OER in Italian schools and institutions of higher education; he also discusses challenges and benefits related to OER. Not unique to Italy, these recurring barriers include quality standards, searchability, language, lack of teacher capacity, and lack of institutional strategies. He notes that language barriers, the lack of available translation, and searchability in a particular language can be common barriers, as can issues related to style and cultural expression (Nascimbeni 2020, 58).

France, the Netherlands, and Belgium

FUN (France Université Numerique) was launched by the French education ministry (Ministère de lʼEnseignement supérieur, de la Recherche et de lʼInnovation) in 2013, and now includes almost all midsize and large well-known universities and partners in the country. More than 160 partners create free courses, but users need to register. Around 2.5 million users at educational institutions have generated 1,800 MOOC courses, and nearly 11 million registered participants have attended them (FUN MOOC, n.d.). Participants learn interactively and collaboratively and at their own pace, but the platform encourages its use for “professional training,” suggesting that organizations and institutions should engage in active professional development and not leave this work to the platform alone. This is a reminder that an online seminar will not achieve the same results as a professional in-person training session.

Other OER in French-speaking countries are described in a 2014 report by Sophie Touzé, Open Educational Resources in France: Overview, Perspectives and Recommendations. Though somewhat dated, it offers additional examples of French and Francophone OER; it is published in English and French.

KlasCement is an educational resources network created by Belgian teachers. Teachers with different backgrounds-including nursery education, primary and secondary education, part-time artistic education, and adult education-share resources they create themselves, support one another, and give tips and reviews. Various organizations from the field of education and vocational training can add material as well. More than 69,000 items have been created as OER, including articles, interactive materials such as video and audio clips, and teaching materials such as textbooks. Most have a Creative Commons license. The platform also offers subsites-related webpages within the same initiative that support education and contain materials (including interactive exercises) from other smaller platforms such as oefen.be, classy (a web space for teachers) and from sites that focus on teaching material for STEM fields.

Edusources, a Dutch network of OER in partnership with SURF (described above), includes different types of material such as presentations, articles, and online e-modules. All materials have a Creative Commons license so users can share and use the content under certain conditions. More than 4,500 OER can be found and searched in English and Dutch. Teachers and librarians make their materials available through the network, and these can be reviewed by the community. Users can search for materials by discipline.

German-speaking countries: Switzerland, Germany, and Austria

iMooX is the first and so far the only MOOC platform in Austria. Sponsored by the Bundesministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft und Forschung (Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research), it has been developed primarily by Technische Universität Graz (Graz University of Technology) and Universität Wien (University of Vienna). Other active supporters of the platform include well-known educational and research institutions from Austria, Switzerland, and Germany, including research universities, universities of applied science, and vocational training programs. Content is accessible free of charge and freely reusable. It is not a large platform, but its creators have reached out to promote it, endorsing it, for example, at the Austrian Universities Conference in October 2021 (Graz University of Technology, n.d.).

MOOChub brings various MOOC platforms together across universities and national borders, primarily in German-speaking countries. The network’s intentions are to standardize online teaching, exchange knowledge, and develop synergies for the long run. MOOChub sees education as “a supporting pillar of society; it emphasizes that everyone should have access to knowledge and should be able to take part in the community of knowledge” (Technische Universität, n.d., my translation).

Medienportal für den MINT-Unterricht at Siemens Stiftung (Media Portal for STEM Instruction) offers OER about STEM subjects, including environmental science, geography, biology, chemistry, and technology. In English, Spanish, and German, the resources target elementary and secondary students. Over 4,500 OER have been created by teachers, and can be modified, combined, and shared. More than 50,000 people from 120 countries are using the platform’s diverse content, including worksheets and educational games. All content is reviewed to ensure high quality. The student section is animated and user-friendly; it includes puzzles, tests, games, and videos to use in presentations. The Media Portal uses “Design Thinking,” a pedagogical approach in which the teacher acts as organizer and partner to help the student solve complex problems in ways that are appropriate to the student’s background and skills. It is a “shared and appreciative learning experience from and with others” (Siemens Stiftung, n.d.).

Unsere Atlanten is an OER created by the Heinrich Böll Foundation, which was founded by the German Green Party. Focused on subjects related to the environment, such as the plastics use and energy production, it has content in German that can be downloaded as a PDF or ePub. The content is complex, showing different points of view, and each OER includes articles, diagrams, and a bibliography. The content is well-edited and user-friendly, and targets high school students and courses at vocational training institutions (Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung, n.d.).

Verein Zentrale für Unterrichtsmedien im Internet (ZUM.de) is a membership network based in Freiburg that relies on voluntary contributions. Its aim is to promote learning and provide teaching aids for all types of schools, along with extracurricular educational programming. Its educational content, created and reviewed mainly by teachers, includes interactive exercises, course planning ideas, and teaching material for creating lessons; it provides an open, non-commercial learning management platform and learning paths. While this approach is ideal for independent learning, it can be used in the classroom as well. All materials are OER and licensed as CC-BY-SA. A related portal, Lehrer Online, is a unique media portal for teachers; instructors pay €8–10 per month and are able to download materials and to reuse, remix, and adapt the OER. Together, ZUM.de and Lehrer Online have around 1.5 million page views per month (Eduversum, n.d.).

Klexikons is a Wikipedia-style encyclopedia targeting children aged 8–13. Only in German, it has 3,200 entries in 12 subject areas, including frequently searched topics such as the human body, the conflict between Israel and Palestine, the history of the Roman Empire, and the French Revolution. Schools in Berlin, Vienna, Bern, and Brixen are part of the project; teachers in these locations create and improve articles. Children can suggest topics and put them on their Wunschliste (wish list). Over 5 million children used the Klexikon in 2020, and usage continues to increase (Zentrale für Unterrichtsmedien im Internet, n.d.).

Additional OER portals for primary and secondary schools can be found on specific topics, including music (e.g., Open Educational Resources zur Musik), history (e.g., segu-geschichte, Learning Platform for Open History Lessons), mathematics (e.g., GeoGebra), and combined subjects.

Zentrale Repositorium für OER der Hochschulen in Baden-Württemberg (ZOERR) is an OER platform across higher education institutions in the state of Baden-Württemberg. It was founded by the Ministerium für Wissenschaft, Forschung und Kunst (Ministry of Science, Research and the Arts Baden-Württemberg), which works to bring together experts from pedagogical centers, e-learning services, and libraries to promote OER. ZOERR, a service for teachers, university faculty members, and students around the world, is available free of charge, and its contents include teaching and learning materials from all types of universities and subject areas. External content can be added through a link and can become part of the repository. The publication process has been made as simple as possible and, for quality assurance purposes, all OER go through a formal editorial process and are checked for technical function and metadata. Authors are reviewed for basic qualifications (on the basis of affiliation to the specified university). “Digitization in Teacher Education” is a highlighted collection that promotes the repository and its related workshops (Menkor and Spaeth 2021).

Hamburg Open Online University (HOOU) is an OER platform that includes all universities in the city of Hamburg, other institutions involved in education or vocational training, and some outside partners. HOOU is directed toward adults, including refugees and citizens interested in learning something new. The HOOU interface shows 257 Lernangebote (eLearning offerings, workshops and seminars) and 239 Materialien (videos and short presentations) (Hamburg Open Online University, n.d.). Although HOOU has less content than ZOERR, it has lower barriers to access and its interface is more user-friendly, especially for non-academic library users.

Twillo is offered by the Leibniz Information Centre for Science and Technology and University Library (TIB) and the state of Lower Saxony, along with other cooperation partners. The Twillo portal separates OER into four categories: Kleinteilige Lehrmaterialien (small education materials such presentations, and brief explanations), Aufgabenorientierte Materialien (task-oriented materials such as quizzes, scripts with questions to be answered, old exams), Lektionen (lectures, including interactive elements and task-oriented teaching and learning materials), and Kurse (courses, with e-learning materials that may include lectures and required readings) (Technische Informationsbibliothek, n.d.).

Conclusion

OER are used throughout Europe in various parts of the educational system and in vocational training programs. The emphasis of these OER is not, as in English-speaking countries, on Open Textbooks; instead European OER provide material and exercises to supplement existing textbooks. While European users are often hesitant to use OER because of barriers such as language, copyright, and OER quality, some educational institutions and libraries are working to reduce this hesitancy and promote these resources. They have created checklists and offered presentations to overcome barriers and advance the process of digital transformation. Many OER projects exist on the state or country level, but they are not well connected with one another, and are therefore not as widely available as they could be. While the unique languages, education systems, copyright issues, and technologies across Europe can make it difficult to connect countries, a great many resources are available, and they have potential to break down barriers and improve access to education for all.

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